| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
1 School of Veterinary Science, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
2 Medical Faculty of the Christian University of Indonesia (FK-UKI), Cawang Atas, Jakarta, Indonesia
3 Food Science Australia, Tingalpa DC, QLD 4173, Australia
4 Immunology and Microbiology, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, PMB 8, Camden, NSW 2570, Australia
5 Microbiology Diagnostic Unit, Public Health Laboratory, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
6 Center for Research in Anti-Infectives and Biotechnology, Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Creighton University, 2500 California Plaza, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
Correspondence
Darren J. Trott
d.trott{at}uq.edu.au
Received 28 February 2006
Accepted 11 May 2006
Abbreviations: CG, clonal group; ESBL, extended-spectrum ß-lactamase; ExPEC, extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli; ICU, intensive care unit; MDR, multidrug resistant; MDREC, multidrug-resistant E. coli; REDP, restriction endonuclease digestion profile; UQVDL, University of Queensland Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory; UQVTH, University of Queensland Veterinary Teaching Hospital.
 |
INTRODUCTION |
|---|
 TOP INTRODUCTION METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
In the late 1980s, plasmids encoding non-inducible AmpC ß-lactamases, which confer resistance to almost all ß-lactam antibiotics with the exception of cefepime, cefpirome and the carbapenems, in particular blaCMY-2, were first identified in E. coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates from cases of nosocomial infection in humans (Bauernfeind et al., 1989). blaCMY genes have been detected in E. coli isolated from companion animals which were associated with nosocomial infections in veterinary hospitals (Carattoli et al., 2005; Sanchez et al., 2002). Whilst still comparatively rare compared to extended-spectrum ß-lactamases (ESBLs), plasmid-mediated AmpCs are increasingly being identified in isolates causing human and animal urinary tract disease and other opportunistic infections worldwide (Carattoli et al., 2005; Navarro et al., 2001; Yan et al., 2004). Of major concern is the fact that blaCMY genes are usually encoded on large multidrug-resistant (MDR) plasmids that can be readily transferred between Salmonella and E. coli (Hossain et al., 2004; Winokur et al., 2001).
We previously identified plasmid-mediated resistance genes in a collection of 11 multidrug-resistant E. coli (MDREC) isolates originating from clinical cases of opportunistic extraintestinal infection in a veterinary teaching hospital in Australia (Sidjabat et al., 2006). The MDREC isolates were found to belong to two distinct clonal groups (CGs) and possessed blaCMY-7, a ß-lactamase gene on a 
93 kb plasmid that was common to all isolates. In the current paper, we describe a 12-month infection control study that was conducted to limit the further occurrence of extraintestinal infections and to determine the epidemiological cycle of MDREC infection within the hospital. Selective media were used to obtain MDR coliforms from the hospital environment and from rectal swabs of hospitalized dogs and of hospital employees, and a multiplex PCR was designed to identify the MDR isolates as E. coli and screen them for blaCMY-7 and dfrA17-aadA5. A subset of representative isolates was characterized using PFGE, plasmid analysis and serotyping, and compared to the 11 previously characterized MDREC strains to determine clonal relationships.
|
METHODS |
|---|
|
TOPINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
.
|
). E. coli strains belonging to CG 1 were positive for all three genes (uspA, dfrA17-aadA5 and blaCMY), whereas those belonging to CG 2 were positive for uspA and blaCMY only (Fig. 2). Oligonucleotide primers designed to amplify the dfrA17-aadA5 gene cassette array were combined in a multiplex with primer pairs for the Citrobacter-based plasmid-mediated blaCMY (Pérez-Pérez & Hanson, 2002) and E. coli uspA (Chen & Griffiths, 1998). Each reaction (25 µl total volume) contained 3.2 pmol each primer, 200 µM each dNTP, 1x PCR buffer, 2 mM MgCl2 and 0.5 U Red Hot DNA Polymerase (ABgene); an initial denaturation for 5 min at 95 °C was employed, then 30 cycles of denaturation for 30 s at 94 °C, annealing for 30 s at 60 °C and extension for 45 s at 72 °C, followed by a final extension for 5 min at 72 °C. MDR coliforms that were negative for E. coli uspA by PCR were then further identified using the Microbact 24E system (Medvet Diagnostic).
|
and Fig. 1
. The relatedness of restriction endonuclease digestion profiles (REDPs) was determined by pairwise comparison. Isolates were considered to belong to the same REDP if their patterns were indistinguishable; and closely related if their patterns differed by changes consistent with a single genetic event (Tenover et al., 1995). The Dice coefficient was used to assess similarities between the REDP of pairs of isolates. Based on this information, matrices of similarity coefficients between all isolates were clustered by the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic means (UPGMA). A dendrogram was constructed to reflect the similarities between strains on the basis of a 2 % band position tolerance and a 2 % small global shift in pattern setting. The size of the plasmids was estimated as described previously (Sidjabat et al., 2006).
|
). |
RESULTS |
|---|
|
TOPINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
). A total of 43 (19.5 %) of 220 environmental swabs were positive for MDR coliform isolates. Areas that yielded a positive result included the intensive care unit (ICU) (respirator, cages, drain, air vents and bedding), small and large dog wards (air vents, cages, drains and bedding including clean blankets) and the food preparation area. None of the swabs obtained from the surgical suite, treatment and examination rooms, or the cancer chemotherapy ward yielded a positive culture. Two of the 16 rectal swabs obtained from anonymous hospital employees contained MDR coliforms.
Identification of MDR coliforms as E. coli and prevalence of blaCMY-7 and the dfrA17-aadA5 gene cassette array
The multiplex PCR was tested on all MDR coliform isolates obtained during the infection control study. All isolates were positive for both blaCMY and E. coli uspA (i.e. were identified as MDREC carrying blaCMY-7), except for a single dog rectal isolate and 34 environmental isolates. These were subsequently identified as Enterobacter cloacae or other non-E. coli species of Enterobacteriaceae on the basis of the Microbact 24E test, and were not characterized further in this study. Therefore, only 4.1 % of the hospital environment swabs yielded MDREC. Twenty of the dog rectal isolates (15.5 %) and the remaining nine environmental isolates possessed the dfrA17-aadA5 gene cassette array that was common to CG 1, in addition to uspA and blaCMY. These were all obtained during the first 6 months of the study.
MDREC REDPs, plasmid profiles and serotypes
Restriction endonuclease digestion profiles, plasmid profiles and antibiotic resistance gene identifications for the 62 selected MDREC isolates and the 11 previously characterized strains are presented in Table 1. The 73 MDREC isolates were divided into the same two unrelated CGs (CG 1 and CG 2), as described previously (Sidjabat et al., 2006) (Fig. 3). All CG 1 MDREC isolates were resistant to chloramphenicol, showed reduced sensitivity to spectinomycin, and possessed catA1 and the dfrA17-aadA5 class I integron array. In CG 1, REDP 1b was the most prevalent profile (20 isolates) and two additional closely related REDP variants were also identified (1c and 1d). In CG 2, REDP 2b was the most prevalent profile, especially among the rectal isolates, and three new REDPs (2e–2g) were identified, confirming the greater genetic diversity within CG 2.
|
170 kb plasmid. CG 2 isolates were divided into five similar plasmid profiles (IIa–IIe) (Table 1). As described previously, a large 93 kb plasmid was common to both CGs and a second plasmid, slightly larger than the 93 kb plasmid was only present in CG 2 isolates. There was no difference in the band intensity of these 93 kb plasmids in CG 2, and the division of the CG 2 plasmid profiles into different types was based on variation of plasmids smaller than 23 kb. Plasmid profile IIe was the only new plasmid profile identified by the inclusion of isolates from the infection control study, and this profile was very closely related to plasmid profile IId (data not shown). Isolates typed as O162 : H– (three isolates), Ont : H– (nine isolates) or OR : H– (two isolates) belonged to CG 1. Six isolates typed as O153 : HR, 11 isolates as OR : HR, and two isolates as OR : H34 belonged to CG 2. Both isolates obtained from rectal swabs from humans shared the same serotype (O153 : HR).
Molecular epidemiology
In CG 1, REDP 1b contained isolates from clinical cases (four isolates), hospitalized dogs (seven isolates), and all the MDREC isolates from the hospital environment (nine isolates) (Fig. 1). The majority of clinical isolates belonged to REDP 2a (six isolates) and the majority of rectal isolates to REDP 2b (17 isolates). None of the environmental isolates belonged to CG 2. However, both MDREC isolates obtained from rectal swabs from humans working in the veterinary hospital were located within this CG. One of the human isolates (Sr8) belonged to REDP 2a together with clinical isolates from cases 2–4, 5 and 7, and several rectal isolates from hospitalized dogs. However, the plasmid profile of isolate Sr8 was slightly different to that obtained for the canine isolates. The REDP of the second human rectal isolate (Sr7) was distinct from that of the other CG 2 strains. However, Sr7 and clinical isolates from cases 2, 4, 7 and 12 had an identical plasmid profile.
In the majority of cases, extraintestinal and rectal isolates obtained from the same clinical case (cases 5, 6, 11 and 12) shared an identical or closely related REDP and plasmid profile. The exception was the the case 5 dog. Extraintestinal isolates obtained from this animal belonged to CG 2, whereas rectal swabs obtained approximately 1 month later yielded a CG 1 strain. However, on a subsequent hospitalization, approximately 1 year later, this animal was confirmed to be a CG 2 carrier.
CG 1 and CG 2 MDREC strains were both demonstrated to be present in the hospital over the same time period (between August and December 2000) and were often isolated on the same day from different dogs. Indeed, during this time period, three of the dogs (R5–R7) were demonstrated to be colonized with both CG 1 and CG 2 strains at the same time. However, the final CG 1 rectal isolate was obtained in December 2000, and, as indicated by multiplex PCR, all the subsequent rectal isolates were shown to belong to CG 2.
|
DISCUSSION |
|---|
|
TOPINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
As described previously, the first clinical cases (C1, C2a and C2b) occurred within 6 months of each other (Sidjabat et al., 2006). Then, over a 4-month period, a cluster of five cases of opportunistic infection due to either CG 1 or CG 2 strains occurred, which prompted the infection control study. During a 1-year period, MDREC were detected in rectal swabs of 15.9 % of hospitalized dogs. Both CG 1 and CG 2 strains were isolated during the first 6 months of the study, but CG 2 became predominant during the second half of the study period. The multiplex PCR designed to identify MDR coliform isolates as E. coli (uspA) carrying blaCMY and dfrA17-aadA5 was therefore a useful rapid test to distinguish CG 1 and CG 2 MDREC from other MDR coliforms such as Ent. cloacae.
Both O162 : H– and O153 : HR serotypes have been reported to produce Shiga-like toxin (Chart & Perry, 2004; Fernandez-Beros et al., 1988). Strains of serogroup O153 that contain enterotoxigenic E. coli virulence genes have also been reported (Fernandez-Beros et al., 1988; Ratnayake et al., 1994), and E. coli O153 : H31 was recently found to be one of the predominant MDREC serotypes isolated from elderly people in Israel (Wolk et al., 2004). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the isolation of both these serotypes from dogs.
The high prevalence of rectal carriage and the lack of genetic diversity among the rectal-swab MDREC isolates confirmed that clonal expansion and/or cross-infection with two distinct genetic groups of MDREC was occurring within the hospital, rather than the transfer and spread of a single or multiple MDR plasmid(s) between genetically unrelated isolates. It is possible that the reduced genetic diversity reflected the use of a quinolone/aminoglycoside combination in the selective medium used for the isolation of canine MDREC during the infection control study. It is feasible that a more diverse group of strains carrying the blaCMY plasmid could have been present in the gastrointestinal tract of the hospitalized dogs. However, this is unlikely, as CG 1 and CG 2 MDREC have been the only canine extraintestinal E. coli strains identified by the UQVDL during the infection control study period that show resistance to expanded-spectrum cephalosporins (S. M. Moss, unpublished data).
These results suggest that the source of MDREC opportunistic infections in the hospital was likely to be endogenous and that dogs hospitalized for prolonged periods while receiving antimicrobial therapy were at risk of becoming gastrointestinal carriers of MDREC. Transmission of MDREC might have occurred via direct dog-to-dog exposure, exposure to a contaminated environment or iatrogenically. To test this hypothesis, a case-control study to examine risk factors for MDREC rectal carriage in hospitalized dogs is currently being undertaken. Supporting evidence for this hypothesis was demonstrated in a MDREC dog-colonization model, in which, compared to controls, dogs treated orally with a broad-spectrum antimicrobial showed higher MDREC log counts and prolonged shedding following oral administration of MDREC CG 1 strain C1. Without antibiotic selection pressure, this strain was rapidly eliminated from the gastrointestinal tract by the commensal coliforms in dogs not receiving the antimicrobial (Trott et al., 2004).
MDREC was isolated from environmental swabs from the ICU (bedding, drainage, dust and a respirator) and from the small dog ward (air vent, cage, dust and drainage), confirming that MDREC was only isolated from the areas of the hospital where convalescent animals receiving antimicrobial therapy spent most of their time. All of the environmental isolates were obtained during the initial phases of the investigation. As changes to infection control procedures were initiated (regular rectal swabbing of hospitalized dogs, isolation of carrier animals, limited contact between hospitalized dogs during exercise, washing of used bedding in bleach), the prevalence of swabs which were positive for MDREC during regular monthly checks of the hospital environment was reduced to negligible levels. Interestingly, all nine isolates from the hospital environment belonged to CG 1. CG 1 MDREC were widely disseminated, with strains isolated from clean and dirty bedding, air ventilation units and drainage systems in the ICU, and medicine and surgery wards. This may indicate that CG 1 isolates, in contrast to CG 2 isolates, possess certain survival advantages outside the host.
Half of the positive environmental swab specimens and a single hospitalized-dog rectal swab were identified as Ent. cloacae. Interestingly, MDR Ent. cloacae isolates were isolated from a case of post-operative osteomyelitis (case 10) at UQVTH (Sidjabat et al., 2006). These isolates will be the subject of a separate study, as preliminary characterization suggests that they contain an ESBL (H. E. Sidjabat and others, unpublished results).
Although CG 2 strains were never isolated from the hospital environment, more importantly, they were isolated from two of 16 anonymous UQVTH employees. This evidence suggests that there has been transfer of MDREC between dogs and humans by the faecal–oral route. Several studies have shown the potential for MDR extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) of animal origin to cause infections in humans. It has been found that MDR uropathogenic E. coli can be spread to humans through contaminated food products of animal origin (Ramchandani et al., 2005). Johnson and colleagues have shown that canine faecal E. coli commonly exhibit virulence traits and phylogenetic characteristics typical of human ExPEC, particularly between canine and human E. coli responsible for urinary tract infections (Johnson et al., 2003). Therefore, cats and dogs may represent potential sources of spread of antimicrobial resistance, and the risk may be compounded by the use of antimicrobial agents in these animals and by their close contact with humans (Guardabassi et al., 2004).
Does the emergence of two CGs of MDREC expressing blaCMY-7 at UQVTH have any corollaries with the epidemiology of extraintestinal MDREC infections in human hospitals? Apart from the widespread dissemination of CGs such as O15 : K52 : H1 and the phylogenetically related ‘clonal group A’ (Manges et al., 2001), ExPEC usually show no clonal dissemination either within or between countries (Landgren et al., 2005). The emergence and spread of CTX-M-15-producing MDREC displaying three different antimicrobial resistance profiles was recently documented in a geriatric hospital in France. However, these strains were shown to be clonally related and all belonged to E. coli phylotype B2 (Leflon-Guibout et al., 2004). In conclusion, it therefore seems quite unusual that in our infection control study, two distinct CGs of MDREC expressing different plasmid-mediated resistance genes were isolated from various sources within a single hospital over the same period of time, with the only common plasmid-mediated mechanism of resistance shared by the isolates being possession of the 93 kb blaCMY-7-carrying plasmid.
Our study has confirmed that CG 2 MDREC may colonize both humans and dogs. Antimicrobial selection pressure for the maintenance of MDREC harbouring blaCMY in the gastrointestinal tract of dogs did not appear to be directly related to the use of third-generation cephalosporins in the hospital, but may be related to the widespread use of broad-spectrum ß-lactam/clavulanic acid combinations and/or fluoroquinolones. Case-control studies will be needed to verify this hypothesis. Whilst the origin of canine MDREC remains equivocal, human-to-dog transmission could be equally as plausible an explanation as dog-to-human transmission. Johnson et al. (2003) concluded that ExPEC strains that possess multiple antimicrobial resistance genes often show a concomitant decrease in the number of extraintestinal virulence genes that they possess. Studies are currently under way to determine if CG 1 and CG 2 MDREC strains possess ExPEC virulence genes and belong to typical ExPEC phylogenetic groups. In addition, it would be interesting to determine the prevalence of plasmid-mediated blaCMY-7 in ExPEC isolated from humans in Australia and South-East Asia.
|
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
|---|
|
REFERENCES |
|---|
|
TOPINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  H. E. Sidjabat, N. D. Hanson, E. Smith-Moland, J. M. Bell, J. S. Gibson, L. J. Filippich, and D. J. Trott Identification of plasmid-mediated extended-spectrum and AmpC {beta}-lactamases in Enterobacter spp. isolated from dogs J. Med. Microbiol., March 1, 2007; 56(3): 426 - 434. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| INT J SYST EVOL MICROBIOL | J MED MICROBIOL | MICROBIOLOGY | J GEN VIROL | ALL SGM JOURNALS |
